Psychological Perspectives

“There is no new information, only discovered information” (Modern Day Psychology, para. 1). Psychology has developed from the theories and ideas of many great men and women. These men and women unabashedly declared their ideas to be factual. In some cases, they were correct, but in others they were not. Sometimes one idea contradicted another and the truth was never known. Psychology continues to advance, however, because researchers continue to seek the truth.

Opinions have been changed and updated since the days of Descartes, but one thing has remained the same: the quest for absolute knowledge. Scientists want to understand why people do the things they do. Although views have changed over time, some theories are still very much in use today. The theories of John Watson, Edward Tolman, and B.F. Skinner are still valid theories and are in use in modern psychology.

Born in 1878, John Watson began attending University classes at 16 years old and was awarded a Masters degree at 21. After a year of working, Watson decided to return to school and attended the University of Chicago to study philosophy. Using the skills he gained at the University of Chicago, Watson created a new school of psychological thought that is now known as behaviorism. Watson believed that everything that organisms do, including acting, thinking and feeling, should be viewed as behaviors (McIntyre, 2003). Watson initiated the classical conditioning theory (also referred to as classical behaviorism). Watson believed that thoughts and feelings were not pure emotion, but rather a reaction to some other stimuli; there was a reason for every reaction. His theory was that people do not just react, they respond.

Little Albert is the subject of Watson’s most recognized experiment. Albert was the child of an employee in Watson’s laboratory. Little Albert was brought to work with his parent every day and was kept occupied by playing with lab rats. This behavior supported Watson’s behaviorism theory. Little Albert was given the rat as a stimuli and he both reacted and responded by playing with the rat. After the initial observation, Watson added the sound of a hammer. When Albert began to play with the rat, the sound of a hammer began to clang in the background. This sound scared Albert and was only initiated when Albert was playing with the rat. After a few instances of the hammer clanging while Albert was playing with the rat, Albert began to cry when he was given the rat, regardless of whether the sound of the hammer was present. Albert had begun to associate the frightening sound of the hammer with the rat (Watson & Rayner, 1920). Watson’s theory of classical conditioning continues to be used today, mostly in child psychology and in the training of animals.

Watson believed that behavior was learned. Behavior did not just exist; somehow the behavior was derived from past experiences and environments.  These theories are still practiced today. Many times, if a person is experiencing difficulties with one particular aspect of life, and that aspect of life can be attributed to an event, psychologists will attempt to reverse that behavior with behavior modification techniques. These techniques were adapted from Watson’s theory.

Edward C. Tolman (1886) earned his PhD from Harvard University in 1915. Contradictory to Watson’s theory, Tolman believed that learning could occur without a reward or threat. Tolman believed that behavior was not an automatic response, but rather an experience that could transfer between environments (both positively and negatively).

Similar to Watson’s experiments, Tolman’s experiments involved lab rats. Tolman used the rats as the primary subject, while Watson used the rats as a stimuli. Tolman observed the rats running through mazes without the promise of a reward when they arrived at the end of the maze. This study produced the theory of latent learning. Tolman believed that learning can occur without the promise of a reward, and his latent learning theory proposed this idea. This theory did not limit itself to rats and other animals; it carried over to humans as well. Like Watson, Tolman believed that behavior is driven by motive, but Tolman believed that behavior is constant and only changes when motive changes.

Tolman believed that humans are always learning, whether they realize it or not. He believed that every interaction that a human witnesses causes some sort of learning. This belief led him to study cognition. Tolman began to use “cognitive maps” in his studies. Cognitive maps are “mental maps, mind maps, cognitive models, or mental models that are a type of mental processing, or cognition, composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual can acquire, code, store, recall, and decode information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday or metaphorical spatial environment” (Cognitive Maps, para. 1). Tolman is credited with coining the phrase “cognitive map.”

Tolman’s theory of behavior declared that learning can occur without reward and often happens without knowledge; that is, the person who is learning often does not realize that he or she is learning until the information learned is needed and used at a later date. Tolman is known as the father of cognitive theory, and is credited with the creation and implementation of cognitive maps. Tolman believed that cognitive maps were a way that humans use to structure and store knowledge, particularly spatial knowledge, “allowing the ‘mind’s eye’ to visualize images in order to reduce cognitive load, and enhance recall and learning of information” (Cognitive Maps, para. 2). The use of cognitive maps helped to support Tolman’s behavioral theories.

B.F. Skinner was born in 1904 and attended Hamilton College. In 1926, Skinner was awarded a degree in English Literature. Skinner intended to become a writer, but was unsuccessful, and after a year became fascinated with psychology. Skinner enrolled at Harvard University to study psychology.

It was evident while Skinner studied at Harvard that he was different from the average student. Skinner thought about things with much more depth than many students. Eventually, Skinner graduated from Harvard with his PhD and continued on to create the Radical Behaviorism theory.

This theory, similar to Watson’s theory, suggested that behavior is a result of one’s environment. The environment acts as a cause for the behavior, meaning that the environment acts as an incentive or a deterrent for certain behavior. Skinner’s theory was also similar to Watson’s theory in that the theory attempted to predict future behavior with environmental stimuli. Skinner’s theory was similar to Watson’s theory in several other ways, including its dependence on scheduled reinforcement. This scheduled reinforcement proposed that the recidivism of the behavior is dependent on the reward. Absence of a reward for poor performance deterred any chance of recidivism. This positive reinforcement is known as operant conditioning.

Skinner’s theory differed from Watsons because Skinner believed that behavior was a consequence of the environment that one is in. Skinner “rejected the idea of inner cause for behavior, and placed emphasis on observable behavior as opposed to the theorizing, based on unverifiable evidence, often done by others” (McIntyre, 2003). Skinner thought that the recidivism of a behavior was based on the reward or punishment received at the time the behavior was presented or possible at multiple times when the behavior was presented. A schedule of reinforcement could produce results for this behavior, but the subject would need to be continuously motivated to produce such results, which meant that at times the reward would need to become greater and greater.

Although Watson’s and Skinner’s positions seem very similar, their outlooks do differ in one substantial way. While Watson believed that psychology should be the direct study of behavior as a science, disregarding emotion and outside incidences that may influence or impair scientific study, Skinner believed that emotions are part of the psychological makeup. Skinner believed that even inner feelings and emotions were behavior, whether acted upon or not. He believed that these emotions support the outward behavior, even if it is on a deeply subconscious level. Because of this belief, Skinner included emotions in his research and theories.

Watson, Tolman, and Skinner were surprisingly similar, yet significantly different at the same time. Each of these theorists believed that behavior was the foundation of human functionality. Each theory believed that behavior was caused by some force, but that causing force was different with each theorist. While one believed that emotions caused behaviors, another believed that fear of punishment or anticipation of reward caused them. Even with their differences, each of these theorists proposed substantial contributions to behavioral psychology. Many theories were proposed before these theories and many have been proposed since, but these three theories seem to maintain their place as the most respected theories in behavioral psychology, and will continue to hold that place for the foreseeable future.

References:

PsychWeb Psychology Art. (n.d.). PsychWeb. Retrieved from http://www.psychweb.com/2010/02/17/modern-day-psychology/

New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Tolman, Edward C.. Retrieved from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Edward_C._Tolman

Behavior Advisor. (n.d.). The Hystory of Behaviorism. Retrieved from http://www.behavioradvisor.com/

 Journal of Experimental Psychology. (n.d.). Conditioned Emotional Reactions. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm

Influentian Woman in Psychology: Mary Whiton Calkins

Mary Whiton Calkins is the most influential woman in psychology’s history.  She not only took enormous steps forward in women’s issues, she also developed new ways of thinking. Calkins is an inspiration. Against all odds, she was able to advance in the world of psychology. Remarkably, she did all of this without a Ph.D.

Most known for being the first women president of the American Psychological Association (APA), Calkins had many other accomplishments that have gone unnoticed by many. Calkins dedicated her life to psychology and philosophy, even though her degree was in neither of these.  Calkins was a feminist and used any setbacks she encountered as a tool to advocate women’s rights.

Calkins was the oldest of 5 children. She was born in March of 1863 in Hartford, Connecticut. Calkins mother was a puritan, while her father was Welsh. Her father, Wolcott Calkins, was a minister and was not encouraged by traditional American schools. He preferred that his children learn culture from French families. However, knowing that women received little education, Calkins’ father decided to push her education.  In 1882, her father encouraged her to apply to Smith College. Unfortunately, Calkins’ sister Maude fell drastically ill. Calkins decided to take time away from school to care for her sister, who soon died. In 1884, Calkins began her senior year at Smith College and graduated with a degree in Classics and Philosophy.

After her graduation, Calkins went to Europe for over a year with her family. “Within a week of her return, Wellesley College asked Calkins to fill a temporary vacancy in their Greek department” (4000 Years of Women in Science, 1997-2008). Calkins began teaching in 1887 and continued in this position until 1890. In 1890, Wellesley College began to contemplate the expansion of their philosophy department to include psychology, a new study at the time. Because of her interest in philosophy and her advanced abilities as an instructor, Calkins was awarded the position of teaching in this new department. Calkins had no training in Psychology or Philosophy.

Because Calkins had no training in the subject she would be teaching, it was required that she study Psychology for one year. Unfortunately, many schools at that time did not offer a psychology department, and the ones that did would not admit women.  Calkins considered studying abroad, but was encouraged to stay within the United States for her education. The University of Michigan would accept women, but would limit her to philosophical psychology, not physiological psychology. This was not appealing to Calkins and she quickly ruled out Michigan.

Instead, Calkins decided to take classes at a Harvard Annex. These classes were taught by Josiah Royce and were not officially part of Harvard University. “Royce, however, pushed her to try to attend regular Harvard classes because not all of his classes were available through the Annex and none of the courses taught by William James were. However, Charles Eliot, the president of Harvard, believed strongly that the two sexes should be educated separately” (4000 Years of Women in Science, 1997-2008). After pressure from Royce and William James, Eliot finally allowed Calkins to begin taking regular classes at the university. He did notate, however, that she would not be considered a student.

Calkins began attending classes that fall and was fortunate to be the only remaining student in the class. Calkins was given a private session with James. “In addition to taking classes with James and Royce, Calkins began studying experimental psychology under Dr. Edmund Sanford of Clark University” (4000 Years of Women in Science, 1997-2008).

One year later, in 1891, Calkins was appointed to the teaching position in the new psychology department at Wellesley College. The psychology department was a sub-department of the philosophy department. Almost immediately, Calkins established a psychological laboratory at the Wellesley.

Even though Calkins was a successful instructor, she felt she needed to further her education. She decided to pursue higher education in the field of Psychology and requested guidance on where to attend from former instructors Sanford, James, and Royce.  The best plan, they decided, would be to study under Hugo Munsterberg, who had had a female student in the past. Munsterberg would be instructing at a familiar university the following year: Harvard. Again, Calkins needed to submit a petition in order to attend classes; and again, she was told that she could attend classes but not as a student.

While studying at Harvard, Calkins conducted many experiments and documented her findings. It was while she studied at Harvard that she invented the paired-associate technique. Calkins invented a new way to study memory and called it the method of paired associates. “G.E. Muller refined the technique and later (Edward B.)Titchener included it in his Student’s Manual, taking full credit for it” (Bumb, n.d.). Unfortunately, women in the late 19^th century often did not get credit for their hard work.

Calkins continued to study under Munsterberg for the next two years, until Munsterberg  was  convinced that Calkins deserved a doctoral degree in psychology. At this time, Munsterberg wrote to President Eliot of Harvard University in order to request that Calkins be considered for a Ph.D. Sadly, Harvard refused the request. Several instructors agreed that Calkins had met the requirements for the degree, which was noted by the University, but not considered.

The next year, Calkins began teaching at Wellesley College again. In 1898, she was promoted to Professor. Calkins wrote several papers and books that are regarded as being some of the most influential and fundamental sources in psychology. In addition to her many psychology writings, Calkins also write many papers on philosophy.

“After 1900, Calkins’ major contribution to psychology was the development of a system of self-psychology” (Bumb, n.d.). Like her mentor (Royce), Calkins believed in idealism and that consciousness is the basis of psychology. Calkins did most of her research on topics such as emotion, space and time consciousness, color theory, dreams, and association. Soon after, Calkins accomplished yet another feat that no woman before her had been able to accomplish.

In 1905, Calkins became the first woman president of the American Psychological Association. Thirteen years later, she became the first woman president of the American Philosophical association. In 1908, Calkins was listed as the twelfth most leading psychologist in the United States. On that list, both men and women were considered. Calkins received two honorary doctorate degrees: one in Letters from Columbia and one in Laws from Smith.

In 1929, Calkins retired from Wellesley College. At this point, she had the title of Research Professor. She was offered positions at two other universities, but declined their offers. Calkins’ retirement proved to be a short one; she died in 1930 as a result of inoperable cancer.

Although she received two honorary doctoral degrees, Calkins never received the degree she worked so hard to receive from Harvard. To this day, Harvard University refuses to grant Calkins her degree. There have been several efforts, even after her death, to persuade Harvard to issue a doctoral degree in psychology to Calkins, but so far these efforts have not yielded any results.

Calkins is the most influential woman in psychology. Calkins paved the way for many important women who would follow in her footsteps. The world of psychology was changed, but more importantly, the world of education was changed. Women are taken more seriously in degree programs and as professors because of Calkins. Through all of the hardships forced upon her, Calkins pressed on; and what she accomplished is immeasurable.

References:

4000 Years of Women in Science. (1997-2008). Mary Whiton Calkins. Retrieved from                                     http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/CALKINS.html

Bumb, J. (n.d.). Mary Whiton Calkins. Webster. Retrieved from                                                                                               http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/marycalkins.html

History of Psychology

Psychology has a long and detailed history. The notion of psychology has been pondered by philosophers as far in the past as Plato and Aristotle, and is still growing and changing today. It seems that each year, something new is learned about the psychological functionality of humans and the physiological repercussions of such functions.

Rene Descartes was one of the first philosophers to document significant psychological queries and has been known to be considered the father of modern day psychology, as well as philosophy, physiology, and mathematics (Goodwin, 2008). Descartes was alive near the end of the Renaissance period and was a true Renaissance man. Descartes was well versed in all forms of art, science, and philosophy. Descartes believed in learning through experience and conducted many experiences to attempt to attain absolute knowledge. Descartes believed that it was possible to learn everything there was to know about the world in the span of his lifetime.

The only truth that would be accepted by Descartes would be the truth that he saw with his own eyes: a method that was highly discouraged by the Catholic Church. “First, he would accept nothing as true unless ‘it presented itself so clearly and distinctly to my mind that there was no reason to doubt it’” (Goodwin, 2008).

Descartes was a pioneer of the theory of “reflex.” Descartes believed that the mind and body did not work together, but rather simultaneously, and perhaps dependent on each other. This was the introduction of true psychology. Descartes began to experiment on the way the body communicates with the brain and found that there was a physiological explanation for a psychological reaction.

Several other philosophers contributed to the foundations of psychology. Many of these philosophers were British and followed the empiricist tradition, meaning that they believed that the knowledge of the world is derived from experiences and not necessarily from books. These philosophers included Sir Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill.

John Locke wrote two books: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690/1963) and Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693/1963) (Goodwin, 2008). These books revolutionized the way people looked at education. Locke studied the way humans absorb information in great detail. Locke strongly believed that the environment a person is placed in helps to determine the level of absorption of education. He wanted to understand what people thought of the world and how they came to those conclusions.

Locke questioned perception. He wondered if people really saw things the same way, or just perceived them to be the same. For instance, if one child is born and sees blue, but is told that it is red; does it then make that color red? If another child sees red and is told that it is red, is their claim that the color they see is red any more true than the other child’s claim? Both children’s perception is that they are seeing red.

Locke studied the theories of nature versus nurture. Locke believed that a person’s environment will determine their morals, preferences, and beliefs. This suggested that nurture actually determines the psychological wellbeing of a person, not nature. Locke did, however, note that there were exceptions to his findings.

David Hume proposed that memories can be tied to current experiences. Hume believed in cause and effect. If a child helps their mother make cookies over and over again, chances are that when that child is an adult and smells cookies, he or she will think of his or her mother. Because the current experience of smelling cookies is tied to the memory of making cookies, which is also associated with the child (now adult)’s mother, the smell of cookies reminds this person of his or her mother. This was the beginning of modern psychology.

John Stuart Mill is attributed with pushing psychology from a philosophical categorization to a scientific one. Mill was a reformist who believed that nurture won out over nature. Mill was a rationalist and a realist. As he put it, “I have long felt that the prevailing tendency to regard all the marked distinctions of human character as innate, and in the mail indelible, and to ignore the irresistible proofs that by far the greater part of those differences, whether between individuals, races, or sexes are… produced by differences in circumstances, is one of the chief hindrances to the rational treatment of great social questions and one of the greatest stumbling blocks to human improvement” (Goodwin, 2008). Mill applied scientific analysis to psychological issues. Even now, Mill’s psychological theories shape the way psychologists do research.

Kant is best known in psychology for several publications that he wrote. Like other psychologists, Kant believed that knowledge is gained by experiences. Kant was concerned with the way people learned. Although he believed that experiences shape knowledge, he believed that some knowledge must come before the experience in order to learn from it. Kant argued that psychology would never become a science because psychology could not be directly observed the way that physiological sciences could. There was no mathematical explanation for psychology. Some time later, psychologists such as Wilhelm Wundt pushed psychology into the category of science rather than art.

Hermann von Helmholtz is credited with being the leading German physiologist of the latter half of the nineteenth century (Goodwin, 2008). Helmholtz is known for connecting physiology and psychology, although he preferred physics to either of the before stated sciences. Helmholtz contributed many studies to the concept of perception and vision. Helmholtz discovered that there were several flaws in the biological construction of the human eye, including natural aberrations caused by the fluids in the eyes. Helmholtz argued that perception is directly related to past experiences. If there were not a previous experience, perception would mean nothing. Many times, a person will not notice that he or she is relating past experience with his or her current perception: it is an unconscious effort.

Phrenology is widely known as a “pseudoscience.”After phrenology was disproven, it remained a popular worldwide phenomenon. Phrenology is the study of the bumps on the human skull. Franz Josef Gall believed that certain areas of the skull directly related to areas of the brain. If there were more bumps in a certain area of the skull, certain personality attributes or flaws could be assumed. Although this “science” was quickly disproven, it is credited with being the first theory to suggest the localization of brain function; and Gall is “credited with being among the first to argue that the brain was the organ of both the intellectual and the emotional components of the mind” (Goodwin, 2008). Years later, a man named Phineas Gage sustained a severe injury while at work. In this injury, a tamping iron was forced through his skull and brain. Remarkably, Gage survived the injury but was a changed man (and not for the better). Once known as an upstanding citizen, Gage became an angry man and a town embarrassment. Phrenologists unsuccessfully argued that this supported their theory.

Ablation was introduced by Pierre Flourens in order to disprove the theories of Phrenology. In this procedure, Flourens would remove a portion of the brain in order to note any changes in personality, mental illness, or physical illness. “Florens removed specific sections of the brain and observed the effects” (Goodwin, 2008). This allowed Florens to observe what portions of the brain were responsible for each functionality of the body. This lead to the discovery that the right side of the brain controlled the left side of the body and the left side of the brain controlled the right side of the body.

The history of Psychology is a complicated one. Many advances have been made in the last few hundred years, and the science of Psychology continues to develop today. What we understand to be true today may be disproven in 100, 20, or even 10 years! The understanding of the human mind is just beginning, and the ability to learn more seems never ending.

References:

Goodwin, C. J. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology 3e BM.

Social Influences on Behavior

               Social settings can easily influence the way humans behave. People will behave differently at a ballet than at a wrestling match. People let their surroundings influence the way they present themselves. Certain behavior is accepted one place, but shunned in another. For example, someone drinking beer and cheering loudly would be accepted, or even encouraged at a wrestling match. If you take that same person, performing the same actions, and put them at a ballet, that person would probably be swiftly escorted out of the theatre.

                The same is true with many social situations. Binge drinking is popular among young adults. This is something that is completely social. People who binge drink only drink when they are in social situations that encourage drinking. They may have several drinks in one night and become extremely intoxicated, but not drink again for several days or weeks. “Binge drinking is defined as having more than five drinks in a sitting if you are male or four drinks if you are female. If you are a regular binge drinker, you are at a much higher risk for physical and mental health problems than someone who drinks in moderation. However, because bingeing is often social, many people who binge drink don't feel that they can stop without losing their friends” Liebowitz (2009), (Lifestyles, para. 1).

                For many young adults, binge drinking is a part of their culture. Peer pressure plays a key role in the lives of binge drinkers. Many young adults feel pressure to adhere to the social norms of their culture, and binge drinking is just one of many of those norms. Because many people drink to fit in with the people around them, it is safe to assume that many binge drinkers feel as if they are an outcast. A precursor to binge drinking is the feeling that one is an outcast and does not fit in. This person will do whatever it takes, within reason, to fit in with the group of people they view as socially superior to them.

                There are, however, many consequences to binge drinking. The more a person drinks, the more likely he or she is to become an alcoholic. Alcoholism is a lifelong struggle. In addition to Alcoholism, many other consequences exist. “Binge drinking over an extended period of time can damage your kidneys and liver as they struggle to dispose of the toxins alcohol brings into your system… Experts estimate that if you binge drink on a weekly basis, you are eight times as likely to be involved in an alcohol related accident or injury than a classmate who does not binge regularly…. there are substantial statistical links between binge drinking and mental health problems. People who binge drink on a regular basis are more likely than their peers to experience depression, anxiety, and compulsive tendencies. Although binging often occurs in an attempt to be sociable and lively, frequent drinking binges can lead to feelings of isolation and depression” Liebowitz (2009), (Lifestyles, para. 4).

                Several social phenomenon have occurred because of binge drinking, but perhaps the best known is the binge-drinking culture in the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, drinks are often larger than in other European countries, and are served more frequently. In addition, binge drinking has advanced to not only regular nighttime drinking, but also to daytime alcohol abuse. “The UK binge drinking culture is also evidenced by the rather unique social phenomena of relatively large groups (8-15) of men/women (of vary different ages) going, without their partners, on a holiday abroad (typically to Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany or other traditional beer countries) with the main purpose of getting drunk together, often in broad daylight” Wapedia (n.d.), (U.K., para. 15).

                For many people, binge drinking is a phase that is gone through rather quickly. It is so common that it is often known as a rite of passage into adulthood. If this binge drinking is gone through quickly, and is proven to be just a phase, it is not necessary to provide therapeutic intervention. If, however, a person binge drinks for a long period of time, such as years, it becomes necessary to have some sort of therapeutic intervention.

                Another behavior that is socially influenced is Agoraphobia. Agoraphobia is the fear of open spaces. People who suffer from Agoraphobia are afraid to go outside of the places that they feel are safe. This fear limits social interaction because the Agoraphobic is afraid of new people, places, and things. Because the fear of new things is so strong, recovery is very limited.

                Agoraphobia can be both biological and environmental. Some studies have shown that genetics can play a role in Agoraphobia. The phobia can also be caused by physiological reaction to illness, life events, learned behavior, and social factors related to gender. The symptoms of Agoraphobia include: trembling, breaking out in a sweat, heart palpitations, paresthesias (tingling or "pins and needles" sensations in the hands or feet), nausea, fatigue, rapid pulse or breathing rate, and a sense of impending doom (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2009).

                People who are predisposed to Panic Disorder are more likely to suffer from Agoraphobia. Agoraphobia affects the person with the phobia in many ways. A person suffering from this phobia will feel more stress than the average person. Stress is proven to increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. Agoraphobia will also limit the sufferer’s social interaction, thus leaving them alone in their world. This can lead to depression and suicide.

                Many holocaust survivors suffered from Agoraphobia after World War II. This social phenomenon was quite obviously caused by environmental influences. Many Jews were taken from their homes and put into “death camps” during the holocaust. After the war was over and they were released from the Nazi “death camps,” many of these people were afraid that if they left their homes again, they may be forced to go back to the camp.

                Agoraphobia is a mental disorder that requires therapeutic intervention. It is imperative that a person who thinks they may have agoraphobia see a professional in order to be diagnosed and treated for their phobia. Left untreated, many people suffering from Agoraphobia will become completely housebound and will suffer for many years. “With proper treatment, however, 90% of patients diagnosed with agoraphobia can recover and resume a normal life” (Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, 2009, para. 21).

                It is clear that social interaction can influence behavior both in a positive and a negative manor. Social interaction is needed for a healthy mental state; however, people must be sure that they are influenced by people who possess positive traits that they admire. People tend to take on the traits of the people they spend the most time with. If a person allows themselves to spend most of their time with someone who has several negative traits, he or she will most likely adapt and take on those negative traits themselves.

References

Liebowitz, Wanda. (2009). The Real Facts, Causes and Effects of Binge Drinking in a College

Setting. Associated Content. Retrieved from

http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/39424/the_real_facts_causes_and_effects_of.html

Wapedia. (n.d.). Binge Drinking. Retrieved from http://wapedia.mobi/en/Binge_drinking

Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. (2009). Agoraphobia. Retrieved from

http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Agoraphobia.html

Biological Foundations of Adult Sexual Development

Sexual development does not begin in adulthood or when a person has their first sexual experience. Sexual development begins before birth. Hormones are passed from the mother to the child and chromosomes make the determination of whether a fetus will develop into a male or a female. This is when the journey to sexual development embarks. Both biological and sociological influences can determine a person’s sexual identity.

Biological influences, often called hormones, are the chemical forces that help to influence sexual development. Hormones are produced in several different glands throughout the body and are secreted to different parts of the body as needed to allow sexual activity to take place.  Hormones are responsible for many of the body’s functions and assist in the process of homeostasis.

Hormones cause chemical reactions to occur in within the body. These chemical reactions influence the behavior of a person. For instance, “most diseases occur to the over or under secretion of hormones by their respective glands. For example, hyposecretion of insulin by the ß cells of the Islets of Langerhans of the pancreas” (Sexual Differences- The biological process of sexual differentiation, The social process of sexual differentiation, para. 3).

Steroids are sex hormones that control sexual behaviors. Steroids cause sexual changes within humans, such as puberty. The female menstrual cycle is caused by hormones. Sexual hormones are made from a chemical reaction initiating in the male and female sex organs and in the adrenal glands. “For example, estrogen is the primary female sex hormone and it is responsible for promoting secondary sexual characteristics in females” (Sexual Differences- The biological process of sexual differentiation, The social process of sexual differentiation, para. 3). Hormone releases effect cells to cause a reaction to occur. This reaction produces the desired results of that hormone.

Hormones react with proteins and cholesterol to for receptors. Specific hormones released by the thyroid and pituitary glands promote specific behaviors. This behavior is more notable in women than in men. Women have more noticeable changes in sexual behavior, such as puberty, premenopause, menopause, and perimenopause. Levels of hormones and the way that these hormones are displayed in physical and psychological behavior are drastically different during each of these stages. Women experience psychological behavioral differences such as anxiety, impatience, earnestness, and intolerance. Some women also exhibit symptoms of depression during these hormonal changes. “Such personality traits have been observed in men also under various circumstances. This could be directly related to the changing hormones in the body. The hormones have the capability of affecting the neurons in the brain cells and causing certain behavior patterns” (Sexual Differences- The biological process of sexual differentiation, The social process of sexual differentiation, para. 3).

Women and men exhibit very different hormones. There is a genetic difference between men and women and, because of this, the hormones in each act differently. The first sex differentiation occurs at conception. When chromosomes determine the sex of the baby, hormones begin to create sex organs to fit that gender. “If there is a ‘Y’ chromosome present, then the embryonic gonadal (sex glands) become a penis. If there is no ‘Y’ chromosome present, the human embryo is automatically female. In extremely rare cases, there are embryos that have different combinations of chromosomes, which are called hermaphrodites because they are technically both sexes” (Sexual Differences- The biological process of sexual differentiation, The social process of sexual differentiation, para. 3). This begins the sexual life of a human.

Humans are sexual by nature and continue to change and develop sexually throughout life. Sexuality is displayed in a variety of ways throughout life. Each stage throughout life initiates a new change in human sexuality. Biological and psychological changes come with each hormonal change. Healthy sexual development depends both on biological and behavioral factors.

From birth, biological sexual behaviors are displayed. “The capacity for a sexual response is present from birth. Male infants, for example, get erections, and vaginal lubrication has been found in female infants in the 24 hours after birth” (Masters, Johnson, & Kolodny, 1982). Masturbation has been seen in children as young as 2 years old (Masters, Johnson, & Kolodny, 1982). Sexual behavior increases as children get older, however the behavior is often hidden by age 5 as children begin to realize what is socially acceptable. This suggests that psychological sexual behavior begins at a very young age.

By the time a child reaches 10 years old, he or she has realized the social difference of males and females (Thorne, 1993). This type of social organization is known as homosocial. Increases in masturbation occurs during this period. “About 40% of the women and 38% of the men in a sample of college students recall masturbating before puberty” (Bancroft, Herbenick, & Reynolds, in press). Sexual attraction and sexual fantasies also begin during this stage of sexual development.

Puberty occurs in adolescents, usually between the age of 13 and 19 years old. Puberty is the period of sexual development that is associated with the maturing of the gonads and genitalia. Psychological sexual behavior, whether acted upon or only imagined, spikes during this period. “These changes begin as early as 10 years of age to as late as 14 years of age, and include rises in levels of sex hormones, which may produce sexual attraction and fantasies. Bodily changes include physical growth, growth in genitals and girls' breasts, and development of facial and pubic hair” (Thorne, 1993). This phase of sexual development makes adult sexual interactions possible (Udry, 1988).

Sexual development continues into adulthood. The decision making process involved in sexual activity often does not develop until adulthood. Sexual experimentation takes on a new role in adult sexual relationships. “Couples report engaging in a variety of sexual activities in addition to vaginal intercourse, including oral-genital sexuality (70% of married men and 74% of married women), anal intercourse (27% and 21%), and hand-genital stimulation. Many adults continue to masturbate even though they are in a long-term relationship; 17% of married men and 5% of married women masturbate at least once a week” (Laumann et al., 1994).

Later in adulthood, women experience menopause as their body’s hormone levels change again. Similarly, men experience a hormone change known as andropause (Lamberts, van den Beld, & van der Lely, 1997) This period begins around age 50, but can begin as early as 40. In this period, the body experiences a decrease in hormone levels specific to each gender. While lubrication may be necessary for regular sexual activity, this does not stop sexual activity. If a person remains active, his or her sexual life can last beyond age 70 (AARP, 1999).

Human sexuality is a developmental process that continues throughout life. This process is birthed at conception and does not end until death. These biological and psychological processes influence the behaviors-both emotional and physical- of humans. Hormonal changes develop the sexual appetite and ability of each human. Each stage of life displays a unique level of sexual maturity, beginning at birth and ending with late adulthood. These hormones influence sexual identity, ability, and behaviors. Hormone levels create both the ability and the desire for sexual action.

References:

American Association of Retired Persons. (1999). AARP/Modern Maturity sexuality study. Atlanta, GA: NFO Research, Inc.

Bancroft, J., Herbenick, D., & Reynolds, M. (In press). Masturbation as a marker of sexual development. In J. Bancroft (Ed.), Sexual development. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Lamberts, S. W. J., van den Beld, A., & van der Lely, A.-J. (1997). The endocrinology of aging. Science, 278, 419-424.

 Masters, W. H., Johnson, V. E., & Kolodny, R. C. (1982). Human sexuality. Boston: Little, Brown

Net Industries. (2010). Sex Differences. Retrieved from http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/574/Sex-Differences.html

Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys in school. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Udry, J. R.. (1988). Biological predispositions and social control in adolescent sexual behavior. American Sociological Review, 53, 709-722.

Neurological Processes

Biological and neural psychologies both have a common goal: to discover the biological reasoning for mental disorders. These areas in psychology are extremely important. In order to medicate and hope for a cure for certain mental deficiencies, scientists must first research these deficiencies. Scientists must fully understand the chemical and biological reasoning behind the disorder if they hope to reverse the damage done to the brain.

Medication for mental disorders has only become available through the research done by biological and neural psychologists. Research must be done not only on global levels, but also within each individual patient. "Mental health professionals use psychological testing, interviews, questionnaires, and patient history to determine first, if a change in the neurotransmitter system is present, then second, what neurotransmitters are involved" (Carver, J., 2006). Medication can only be administered to a patient after this individual research has been conducted.

Regulating behavior is an important aspect in the treatment of people with mental disorders. This can be done with the use of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, receptors, and synaptic transmission. Stimulation of the presynaptic cell causes a change in the resting potential. This is called postsynaptic potential. Excitatory postsynaptic potential occurs when the stimulation causes the current in the cell to be more positive than it already is, while inhibitory postsynaptic potential occurs when the stimulation causes the current in the cell to be more negative that it already is (Wickens, A., 2005).

The axon hillock is located inside of the neuron and is between the axon and the cellular body.  Here, there are nerve impulses. These nerve impulses cause electrical movement inside the synapses. This movement is called synaptic transmission (neurotransmission). Synaptic transmission enables communication between neurons in the brain. "All experiences, such as thoughts and feelings, and all actions, are the results of neurons generating nerve impulses" (Wickens, A., 2005). The portion of the cell that connects with transmitters or molecules is called the receptor. The receptor causes psychological changes.

There are several primary neurotransmitters that influence brain function and behavior. Noradrenalin (also known as norepinephrine), serotonin, gamma-amino butyric acid, glutamate, acetylcholine, and dopamine make up these primary neurotransmitters. Noradrenalin “is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. As a hormone, secreted by the adrenal gland, it works alongside epinephrine / adrenaline to give the body sudden energy in times of stress, known as the ‘fight or flight’ response. As a neurotransmitter, it passes nerve impulses from one neuron to the next” Purse (2010, para. 1).

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that influences several functions in the brain. It creates intense feelings of happiness in humans and is “a chemical substance, a neurotransmitter, found in the brain that regulates movement, balance and walking” UK HealthCare (2007, Dopamine, para. 30). Dopamine influences behavior and thought processes. Dopamine helps to influence feelings of motivation, reward, sleep, and mood regulation (Wickens, A., 2005). Like Dopamine, Serotonin is responsible for mood regulation and sleep. The factor that makes Serotonin different from Dopamine is that Serotonin also helps to regulate body temperature and sexual drive. This small factor makes Serotonin distinctly important to the human body.

Gamma amino butyric acid (also known as GABA), “acts at inhibitory synapses in the brain by binding to specific trans-membrane receptors in the plasma membrane of both pre and post synaptic neurons” (Sahley, B., 2002). Like Dopamine and Serotonin, Gamma amino butyric acid regulates sleep. What makes it unique is that it also regulates anxiety.  Glutamate is “the most common neurotransmitter in the brain” (National Institutes of Health/National institute on Drug Abuse, n.d.). Glutamate helps to regulate cognitive functions. Acetylcholine “is a very effective deliverer of sodium ions, which stimulate muscle contractions and excites nerves. An increase in acetylcholine causes a decreased heart rate and increased production of saliva, as well as readying the muscles for work “(ISCID Encyclopedia of Science and Philosophy, 2008).

In order to understand mental disorders, scientists must first understand what causes these disorders. Neurotransmitters play a large role in the formation of these disorders. If scientists can understand these neurotransmitters, there is a better chance they can understand the disorders. Neurotransmitters are chemicals within the body that enable communication between cells. If there is a problem with a neurotransmitter, this communication is slowed, skewed, or cut off completely. This is how mental illnesses are formed.

Luckily, there are medications that can change the way neurotransmitters work. Neurotransmitters can be made to function in a different way to make up for other neurotransmitters that have malfunctioned. "The discovery of synaptic chemical transmission by Loewi provides one of the pivotal points in the history of biological science-not least because it raised the possibility of modifying brain function (and behavior) by the use of drugs that affect neurotransmitters" (Wickens, A., 2005 p. 14). Antidepressants, for instance, can increase the level of extracellular neurotransmitter serotonin.  The Antidepressants prevent the reuptake into the pre-synaptic cell, which increases the level of serotonin available to bind the cell to the postsynaptic receptor (Wickens, A., 2005 p. 14). Changing the way that chemicals interact in the brain helps to reduce or eliminate the effects of several mental illnesses.

"Neurotransmitters control every emotion and thought, memory and learning; they carry the signals between the nerve cells or neurons in the brain. Psychiatric drugs can interfere with just about every step in work of neurotransmitters" (Sahley, B., 2002). Psychiatric drugs can be used in both positive and negative ways. If a psychiatric drug is used when a neurotransmitter problem does not exist, the function of the brain is altered in a negative way and long term effects may be present.

If there is a malfunction with a neurotransmitter, however, psychiatric drugs may assist in therapeutic treatment of the disorder. "When Serotonin is low, we experience problems with concentration and attention. We become scatterbrained and poorly organized" (Carver, J., 2006). Inability to concentrate can make people behave in ways that they normally would not behave. This is seen in students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Students are unable to concentrate on their school work and very often their grades are effective. This can cause some students to behave inappropriately because they cannot concentrate on school work and need some other outlet. Having low levels of serotonin can be stressful, and that stress can cause depression symptoms and indigestion.

Depression itself can also be caused by low levels of serotonin. "Treatment for depression, as might be expected, involves increasing levels of Serotonin in the brain. Since the mid-eighties, medications have been available to simply target and increase Serotonin" (Carver, J., 2006). Medications such as Sertraline HCI can be used to treat mental disorders such as depression, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety, bipolar disorder, manic depression, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), and panic disorder (Revolution Health, 2010). Sertraline (Zoloft) raises levels of Serotonin in order to regulate the patient’s mood and behavior.

The knowledge of biological psychology has been a wonderful achievement in the history of psychological research. Without this research, psychologists would not have medication to treat people who have mental disorders. The combination of neural and biological psychologies has made great strides in understanding the chemical and biological reasons that mental illnesses occur. In order to achieve a cure or even a treatment, research in these areas must continue. 

References:

Acetylcholine. (2008). ISCID Encyclopedia of Science and Philosophy. Retrieved from

                http://www.iscid.org/encyclopedia/Acetylcholine

           Carver, J., (2006). Medication Treatment of the Chemical Imbalance. Retrieved from

http://www.enotalone.com/article/4119.html

           Carver, J., (2006). Serotonin: From Bliss to Despair. Retrieved from

                http://www.enotalone.com/article/4116.html

           National Institutes of Health/National institute on Drug Abuse. (n.d.). The brain:

understnding neurobiology. Retrieved from

http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/Addiction/other/glossary/glossary2.htm

          Purse, M. (2010). Norepinephrine. About.com. Retrieved from

                http://bipolar.about.com/od/glossary/g/gl_norepinephri.htm

          Revolution Health. (2010). Drugs & treatments. Retrieved from

                http://www.revolutionhealth.com/drugs-treatments/zoloft

          Sahley, B., (2002). Understanding Chemical Imbalances. Retrieved on February 17, 2008 from                

                 http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=9&sid=385e984f-4531-405c-99df-d9250955aad9%40sessionmgr2

         UK HealthCare. (2007). D glossary. Retrieved from

                http://ukhealthcare.uky.edu/patient/glossary/glossary-d.htm

Wickens, A. (2005). Foundations of Biopsychology, Second Edition. Prentice-Hall.



Biological Psychology

Biological psychology is unlike any other branch of psychological study. While other areas of psychology, such as cognitive and clinical psychology, focus on statistics and observation, biological psychology focuses on the biological reasoning for behavior. Biological psychology is used in neuropsychology as well as the practice of psychiatry. Biological psychology “is a hybrid of neuroscience and psychology used to examine the knowledge of the brain to treat patients” (Helium, 2002-2010).

Biological psychology is the study of the biological reasoning behind the foundation of human behavior. Physiological psychologies, clinical neuropsychology, behavioral neuroscience, and biopsychology are all names used to describe or define the area of biological psychology (Wickens, 2005, p. 3). Biological psychology attempts to find a chemical or biological reasoning for mental illnesses including schizophrenia, bipolar disease, and depression. Biological psychology studies human emotions and behaviors and attempts to find a system to deal with psychological problems, much like other forms of psychology. The thing that makes biological psychology different is the way that information is viewed and processed. While other avenues of psychology look at issues from a clinical view, biological psychology looks at issues with a scientific or biological view.

The ancient Greeks were the first documentation of the realization that the brain has psychological and physiological importance. As a result of this realization, the Greeks began to study the human brain. Plato was the first theorist to resolve that human reasoning and emotions come from the brain. He also believed that the mind and the body serve a separate purpose. After Plato, Aristotle theorized that there is a close relationship between physiological and psychological processes. “In the 20^th Century biopsychology entered into the area of scientific research” (Wickens, 2005). Galen theorized about the human heart, but stated that the four ventricles of the brain were the source of human behaviors. Nemesius, a Roman theorist and follower of Galen, said that the lateral ventricles as the source from which mental impressions were derived. He also theorized that the third ventricle was the home of reasoning and that the fourth ventricle was where memory was contained (Wickens, 2005). Donald O. Hebb’s research in the fifteenth century concluded that psychological functioning could be studied in conjunction with chemistry and physiology of the brain.

Rene Descartes was another notable psychological theorist. Descartes agreed with Plato, but believed that the mind and the body, although separate entities, worked together to serve a purpose. He believed that behaviors were caused by animal spirits. “He held a mechanistic view arrived at because of the statues of St. Germaine.  Descartes thought humans followed the same pattern as the statues with water flowing through tubes, representing nerves and the fluid that result in muscle stimulation” (Millis, n.d.). Descartes planted the seed that human behavior may not be based solely on emotions, but also on anatomy and biological reasoning.

Thomas Willis took Descartes’ views one step further. He believed that the structures of the human brain influenced behaviors. “Willis is responsible for discovering the gray and white matter within the brain (Hub Pages, 2010). Willis, like Descartes, believed that spirits influenced human behaviors, but he believed that the spirits were created in the grey matter and distributed by the white matter in the brain (Hub Pages, 2010).

Many branches of psychology focus on phenomena. Unlike these areas of psychology, biological psychology is classified by method (Hub Pages, 2010). While many areas of psychology study group behavior or case studies, biological psychology studies the chemical or biological reason for the behavior. Biological psychology focuses not on what behavior occurs, rather it studies the reason the behavior occurred in the first place. “Research accomplished within the field contributes to developmental psychology in the assistance of understanding memory, motivation, perceptions, cognition, learning and emotions” (Ertel, 2004). Biological psychologists work in neuroscience, neuropsychology, behavioral genetics, psychopharmacology, and psychiatry. These fields are all very different, but all depend greatly on biological psychology. These fields are able to take biological psychology and use it for very different things to accomplish the resolution of each individual task.

Biological psychology assumes that there is a biological basis to mental processes. Biological psychologists do research and present the evidence to prove their theories. Both medication and discussion are used in the treatment of mental issues when using biological psychology. “The biological approach in psychology focuses more on the individual and the genetic makeup than the environmental influence on the individual” (Hub Pages, 2010). Heredity and chemical imbalances are more important to biological psychology than in other forms of psychology. Conversely, societal impact is less important in biological psychology than in other forms of psychology, where social impact is extremely important.

There are several forms of psychology, but not that are as scientific as biological psychology. Biological psychology allows psychology to look into neuroscience and physiology. Biological psychology focuses on the biological reasoning for human behavior. Environment and genetics both have an impact on human behavior. In order to examine both of these causes of human behavior, both biological psychology and sociological psychology must be put to use. Because of biological psychology medication is available to people suffering from mental illness.

References

Helium. (2002-2010). What is biological psychology?. Retrieved from

                http://www.helium.com/items/1415090-psychology-what-is-biological-

                psychology

Hub Pages. (2010). Biological Psychology. Retrieved from

                http://hubpages.com/hub/Biological-Psychology

Ertel, S. (2004). Interdisciplinary psychology with Suitbert Ertel. Retrieved December

                21, 2008, from http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/home/ertel/ertel-

                dir/myinterests/1psychology/01a62c92a20d0ec0d.html

Millis, K. (n.d.). A short history of neuropsychology. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from

                http://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2002/neuro.htm

Wickens, A. (2005). Foundations of Biopsychology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

                Prentice-Hall.

Creative Process

Creativity is both the product of and the tool to enhance human progress. Creativity has spawned everything from paintings to music, from buildings to inventions. Without creativity, humans could not progress as they have. Humans would be content with the status quo and would not have motivation to enhance their lives or the lives of future generations. Rather than being in charge of the land and the creatures who live in it, humans would have to adapt to the environment that surrounds them. Without the tools to mold the environment to serve their needs, humans would need to either move in search for the environment that suits them or simply adapt to the land they are in.

Creativity is an extremely important part of modern society. There is some speculation that intense creativity exhibited in a single person is the result of a deficiency in other aspects of mental activity. Psychological and mental disorders and illnesses are sometimes blamed for extreme creativity exhibited by an individual. Often, artists exhibit symptoms similar to depression or bipolar disorder. Some even exhibit symptoms of schizophrenia, which can be a result of untreated bipolar disorder. Symptoms of these illnesses are exhibited in Peter Tschaikowski, Leonard Bernstein, van Gogh, and Beethoven. Although very creative with their craft, these artists all had trouble with their personal lives (Nettle, 2000). These issues prevented the artists from being understood by much of society, and as a result often created isolation. The isolation, although beneficial to the creative process, ultimately compounded the original issues.

In a time when homosexuality was unacceptable, Peter Tschaikowski found himself in quite a predicament. Tschaikowski was not attracted to women and had no desire to facilitate a façade to obtain social acceptance. Because he could not have a male lover, he was unsatisfied both sexually and emotionally. As a result, many of Tschaikowski greatest works were written as an outlet for the pain he was feeling. Some scholars believe that his death was caused by a suicide attempt. Tschaikowski dove into an icy river and later died of pneumonia; many have held up the assumption that this dive was an attempt to end his own life because of his deep depression (McManamy, 2009). Tschaikowski creative instincts were actually not instinctual at all. Instead, they were the derivative of emotional turmoil and instability.

American composer Leonard Bernstein had similar internal conflicts to Tschaikowski. Bernstein lived in constant secrecy. Bernstein felt a great deal of shame because of his homosexual and bisexual feelings. He kept these feelings a secret. The shame developed into a deep depression that Bernstein battled with over the course of most of his life. Bernstein was considered a child prodigy. He continued to advance his career throughout his life, although some would say he gravely overextended himself. Bernstein composed, conducted, lectured, and taught. He used his creative gift as a way to escape the reality of his life and depression. Overworked and under rested, Bernstein suffered from a nervous breakdown and was forced to slow down. Bernstein decided to resign from his position of Music Director of the New York Philharmonic and devote himself instead to a much quieter life of composing music. From time to time, he made appearances as a guest conductor with several organizations. Bernstein’s youth greatly influenced his creativity. Bernstein used information that had been made public about himself, such as his Jewish heritage, to compose many great pieces of music. Bernstein wrote of his deep depression only in his private writings. A contrast to Tschiakowski, Bernstein did not use his music as a creative outlet for his afflictions. Instead, he wrote his feelings down, almost as a form of self-therapy. Bernstein was married and had children. While Bernstein felt a deep love for his family, he could not overcome his deep sexual desire for men. As Bernstein lived with an inner battle between his desires and his obligations, he sank deeper and deeper into depression.

Vincent van Gogh was an artist who was tortured by his own actions. Van Gogh, although married with a family, lived with several different women over the course of his life. Van Gogh seemed to be in a love affair with himself, and to him, no woman could ever live up to the greatness of him. While some may say that he loved women, others say that he in fact only loved himself, and hated women for not being able to live up to the expectations he had created for them. Much of van Gogh’s work is very dark and appears angry. Van Gogh somehow was able to bridge the gap between abstract and realism. For instance, none of his art appears realistic, yet it evokes so much emotion. It enables the viewer to see their own version of reality, while still being completely unrealistic. Van Gogh is famous for cutting off his ear. After a night of drinking absinthe, van Gogh heard voices telling him to kill another artist who he had recently parted ways with. To silence the voices, van Gogh cut the bottom of his ear lobe off and delivered it to a brothel where a prostitute he had been with lived. This was van Gogh’s obscure attempt at a loving gift for the woman. Van Gogh caught gonorrhea at one point and is speculated to have also suffered from syphilis. Widely unaccepted during his own time, van Gogh slipped into a deep depression despite his issues with pride. Some physicians now think that van Gogh may have also suffered from bipolar disorder.

Ludwig van Beethoven was a creative genius. His symphonies and sonatas are used today in movies and television shows. Beethoven’s music has truly stood the test of time. Beethoven often felt frustrated when he could not translate what he “heard” in his mind into notes on sheet music. This frustration controlled his life and overtook his thoughts. Because he was constantly focused on his imperfections, Beethoven became very bitter. Beethoven isolated himself and was misunderstood by the socialites that surrounded him. As a child, Beethoven was abused by his father and babied by his mother. The combination of his childhood mistreatment and not being understood as an adult made Beethoven miserable. Beethoven became more and more distant from reality. His greatest work was written while he was completely detached from society. Beethoven was, in fact, deaf when he composed his last symphony, but it proved to be his most successful work.

Each of these artists has a passion for their art, and not for much else. Each artist fought with a deep internal conflict. Isolating themselves from any deep emotional attachments to other people, each artist lived in their work. Shunned by society, each artist struggled to silence their inner demons. Art was the outlet that most likely kept these artists from going completely insane. Although these artists were all genius, not all creativity will produce genius results. Whether or not creativity can be categorized as genius depends on how the piece affects society. If the piece is sustainable or widely impressionable, it could be considered to be artistic genius.

For me, creativity is spontaneous. I am not influenced by any mental illnesses as we have seen in these artists. I am not influenced by trouble in my life. I do not have a deep feeling of being misunderstood and I don’t have a need for acceptance. Most of my life is spent in the world of reality. I spend time accepting the reality of my life and of the world around me. I rarely picture things in new ways, the way many artists do.

I like to think of what is and what will be rather than what could be. My choices are based on the most likely result. I consider the facts before making decisions and do not question myself once I have made a decision. Because my mind works in a more analytical way than in an artistic way, I find it difficult to be creative. Many times creativity seems like more of a forced action to me than a flowing one, contrary to the way many artists feel.  My creative process, when dissected, is not really creative at all. When I know that I need to be creative I write out all of the possible solutions and then map out where each of those solutions lead. I then choose the most favorable path. My creative process is, in fact, an analytical process.

The word has had many famous artists in its history. Many of these artists suffered great injustices. It seems as though some sort of turmoil assists in the artistic process. All of these artists are widely regarded to be artistic geniuses. Whatever the affliction they suffered, society benefited from art being the outlet from that affliction.

References

Nettle, D. (2000). Strong Imagination: Madness, Creativity and Human Nature. Oxford

                University Press.

McManamy, John. “Music of the Heart – Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky.” McMan’s Depression andBipolar Web. Retrieved from http://www.mcmanweb.com/tchaikovsky.html

Physics Forums. (2010). Physics forums. Retrieved from http://www.physicsforums.com/showthread.php?t=10432

 Beethoven's web page. (n.d.). Ludwig van Beethoven. Retrieved from  http://www.lvbeethoven.com/Bio/BiographyLudwig.html

 bach-cantatas.com. (n.d.). Leonar Bernstein. Retrieved from http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Bio/Bernstein-Leonard.htm

Leonardo da Vinci: Notable Creator

Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian painter, architect, scientist, engineer, and sculptor, was a true renaissance man. Da Vinci was the illegitimate son of Ser Piero, a notary, and Caterina, a peasant girl. Da Vinci was born April 15, 1452. Ser Piero took immediate custody of da Vinci, while da Vinci’s mother moved to a neighboring town and began a family with another man. Between both his mother and his father’s families, da Vinci had a total of 17 half brothers and sisters.

As a child, da Vinci often read books that he had borrowed from friends and family members. Because he lived in the city of Vinci, he was also exposed to a rich visual art community. Vinci was known for its painting traditions. When da Vinci was 15, he moved for Florence and began to apprentice under Andrea del Verrochio. Del Verrochio immediately recognized da Vinci’s immense artistic talents and began to include da Vinci’s work in his own masterpieces. One of Da Vinci’s first known works is a painting of an angel in Verrochio’s “Baptism of Christ” (Museum of Science, n.d.). Da Vinci’s work was so much greater than his instructor’s that Verrochio decided never to paint again. Da Vinci continued to work with Verrochio until 1477.

In the pursuit of financial gain, Da Vinci began working for the Duke of Milan in 1482. To accept this position, he had to leave his first paid project before finishing it ("The Adoration of the Magi"). Da Vinci continued to work for the Duke until 1499. During his time in Milan, da Vinci advanced his abilities in both art and science.

During his commission with the Duke, da Vinci was asked to perform both artistic and scientific duties. In addition to his paintings, the Duke asked Da Vinci to design weapons and buildings. Da Vinci began to study mathematics, architecture, nature, mechanics, and machinery. Many of his designs were not fully realized until years after his death, including a military tank and a submarine. Like his mentor Verrochio, da Vinci began leading his own workshops, with many students and apprentices applying to learn from him.

Da Vinci often began projects that he did not finish. Many geniuses have this trait. Albert Einstein, for instance, wrote down formulas and instructions, but did not want to actually conduct the experiments he suggested: he lost interest in them before he ever arrived at that point. Da Vinci completed very few works of art during his service to the Duke of Milan. One of these paintings was the famous “The Last Supper.” Because da Vinci was becoming increasingly interested in biology, he began to lose interest in painting. It was then that da Vinci began dissecting human remains.

In 1490, da Vinci began to record his studies in illustrated notebooks. These notebooks, now very valuable and widely sought after by collectors, contain sketches of ideas that da Vinci had about each of his fields of interest. These fields included mechanics, architecture, biology, and painting.

In 1499, the Duke of Milan was stripped of his power. This left da Vinci unemployed. Da Vinci worked as an independent contractor of sorts for the next 16 years. Traveling throughout Italy, he worked for several employers, all for very short periods. Da Vinci was commissioned to build bridges, engineer machinery for the military, and also to paint masterpieces.

In 1503, da Vinci began painting the “Mona Lisa,” his most famous work of art. This painting is still displayed in the Louvre and is studied by art students around the world. This painting has been the subject of many artistic debates for centuries. Some people say that this is da Vinci’s self portrait, with him depicting himself as a woman (Huffington Post, 2010). Others say that this was his mistress who was married to the man who commissioned the painting. Many people simply wonder what Mona Lisa is smiling about; is she possibly hiding a secret?

Da Vinci was notified of his father’s death on July 9, 1504. Unfortunately, da Vinci was not given his rightful inheritance from his father’s death. Instead, his half brothers and sisters were awarded the full amount of the inheritance. After the death of his uncle, da Vinci was finally given the inheritance that he deserved and was given control of his uncle’s assets.

Da Vinci began working for the Pope in Rome in 1513. Da Vinci was able to take on several projects for the Pope, including painting and architecture, but was forbidden from dissecting human cadavers. Da Vinci wanted to continue his study of human biology, so he left the commission of the Pope in 1516.

In 1516, da Vinci was offered the position of Premier Painter, Engineer, and Architect of the King Frances I in France (Museum of Science, n.d.). This would be da Vinci’s last employer. Da Vinci was allowed to live in a manor house near the royal palace in Amboise. In addition to this, da Vinci was given a commission for his work. Da Vinci died on May 2, 1519 in Cloux, France.

Leonardo da Vinci is the greatest artistic and scientific mind of his era and is a true renaissance man. Although da Vinci’s scientific abilities were influenced by nature, his artistic abilities were influenced by nurture, rather than by nature. Da Vinci was sent to school to learn to be an artist. As a boy, his father encouraged him to learn to paint. Even as an adult, da Vinci was not naturally influenced to create his paintings. He was influenced by the people who paid him to paint. He painted whatever they told him to paint, and therefore he was not naturally influenced at all.

Da Vinci embraced many forms of creativity. His most famous painting is “The Mona Lisa,” although some say that da Vinci was the true creator of the “Shroud of Turin.” If this were true, the shroud would be Da Vinci’s most creative painting. Da Vinci also had many other creative outlets, such as architecture, anatomy, and machinery.

Da Vinci still influences society today. Art students around the world still study da Vinci’s work. Much of da Vinci’s work is still a mystery because so much of it was left unfinished. His work leaves philosophers and historians to contemplate what the intended finished project would have been. Da Vinci was the first inventor of the military tank and also the inventor of the contact lens. Because of da Vinci’s extensive study of anatomy, he was able to create a corrective lens that sits directly on the eye; however this technology did not materialize until centuries later. Da Vinci sketched several drawings of flying machines. These flying machines were not manufactured in his lifetime, and were in fact not manufactured for another four hundred years. Clearly, da Vinci’s work is still influencing society around the world. Da Vinci’s ideas have shaped many of the inventions of today and will likely continue to influence new ideas in the future.

References:

Museum of Science. (n.d.). Rennaissance Man. Retrieved from                                                                   http://www.mos.org/leonardo/bio.html

(2010, January 27). Mona Lisa a self-portrait? Da Vinci's remains to be exhumed to solve mystery. Huffingtong Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/01/27/mona-lisa-a-self-portrait_n_439108.html